Academic Review 2024

ACADEMIC REVIEW ISSUE 2 | FEBRUARY 2024

ST EDWARD’S, OXFORD

An introduction from the Warden

Welcome to the second edition of the St Edward’s Academic Review, an annual celebration of the School’s academic culture. In its combination of work by pupils and their teachers, the Academic Review is an expression of the School as a community of learners, united in their pursuit of scholarship and excellence.

wanting to read more widely, to think more deeply and to develop new ideas of our own. Teddies is a vibrant and inspiring place in which to live and work, not least for the breadth of interests amongst the pupils and teachers. The Academic Review reflects that diversity - read on to learn how personalised medicine could be integrated into the NHS, about the importance of passive resistance during the German occupation of France and the significance of Sunny's interactions with Holden in The Catcher in the Rye . These essays are interspersed with stunning work created over the last year by pupils in the Art Department, a very different but equally inspiring form of expression and communication. I hope that you enjoy this second edition even more than the first.

At Teddies we educate our pupils not only to acquire knowledge but to approach their learning with curiosity. We want them to leave here with a lifelong interest in the life of the mind and the ability to question, to reflect, and to communicate and collaborate with others. If we have equipped them with those valuable tools and an enthusiasm for learning, we have done our job well. When you have read this second edition of the Academic Review, I hope that you will share my view that we are well on our way to achieving that objective. For me, this Review is the very definition of scholarship: building on the work of others to find new ways of thinking, making connections between subjects and across centuries of learning, expressing ideas with clarity, conveying passion, inspiring enthusiasm, and leaving us

Introduction from Hugh Stephens, Director of Teaching and Learning The Academic Review showcases the curiosity of our community over a broad range of academic areas and exemplifies our willingness

Choosing pieces to include in this publication is a considerable challenge and the work presented here is only a small sample of the academic excellence and achievement to be found among the pupils and staff at Teddies. I hope you enjoy reading the Academic Review and find inspiration from the remarkable essays and outstanding artwork.

to tackle challenging questions and our creativity in presenting solutions and new perspectives. This second edition presents a selection of the most outstanding thinking and academic writing at Teddies from the past year.

Cover image: Paddy Smith

All of the essays and artworks published in this edition of the Academic Review have been written by current pupils or 2023 leavers, with the exception of the essay entitled 'To what extent is it frustrating or disappointing that Austen's heroine in Persuasion becomes emotionally fulfilled by marrying the man she loves?' which was written by Anastasia Elliott, Teacher of English.

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Contents

Introduction

Contents

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2 How, and to what extent, do Sunny’s interactions with Holden reveal his “loss of innocence” in J D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye ? By Adriane Yeung

Evie McGill

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10 Smartness of the Seas: An essay comparing and contrasting the intelligence of killer whales ( Orcanus orca ) and common bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) By Alex Niblett

Josie Denvir

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22 To what extent is it frustrating or disappointing that Austen’s heroine in Persuasion becomes emotionally fulfilled by marrying the man she loves? By Anastasia Elliott

Pula Laughton

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Amelia Morton and Jackson Davies

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28 To what extent is implicit bias the main reason for discrimination of people of colour and women in American, British and Canadian healthcare? By Grace Kulubya

Hermione Brewster and Maditha Frasier

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Nina Brown

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42 To what extent does personalised medicine have the potential to be further integrated into the NHS and how effectively is it currently being used? By Kourosh Jaafari 52 Fission vs Fusion Power: To what extent is nuclear fusion a better alternative to nuclear fission in producing energy and achieving economic growth in the UK? By Max Brosio

Paddy Smith

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62 Ethical issues surrounding embryonic stem cell therapy compared to adult and induced pluripotent stem cell therapy By Morgan Wrigley

Henry Mayhew

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72 To what extent was the passive resistance decisive during the German occupation of France between 1940 and 1944? By Alexandre Bertrand

Jess Pickering Haruno Watanabe

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1 .

How, and to what extent, do Sunny’s interactions with Holden reveal his “loss of innocence” in J D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye ? By Adriane Yeung No doubt considered a timeless classic, J D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye follows 16-year-old Holden Caulfield. Both the narrator and protagonist, Holden tells his story from a mental ward in California with a jaded honesty as he recounts his week in New York City during Christmas break, after expulsion from his preparatory school, Pencey Prep. Throughout the week, Holden’s disenchantment with society escalates as he slumps further and further into a seemingly perpetual state of loneliness. He attempts to combat it by compulsively seeking out human interaction, for example old flame Sally Hayes; former schoolmate Carl Luce; sister, Phoebe Caulfield; and prostitute, Sunny, who he pays to have sex with on the first night of his stay at the Edmont Hotel, but ends up only speaking to her instead. As his narration progresses, his thoughts become increasingly frantic – bordering delusional – as he decides to run away to live in a little cabin in the woods. Ultimately, his mind is swayed by Phoebe and we see him deciding to stay and eventually seeking mental help as he gazes at Phoebe on a carousel in the iconic closing scene.

Introduction

its prominent themes of teenage angst, alienation, and loss of innocence, ‘paralleled the rapid rise of the teenager as a new social category’ (Golub, 2010). In 1951 the critics were praising the book with vigour – the Saturday Review calling the work ‘remarkable’ and ‘absorbing’ (Smith, 1951) and respected literary critic Clifton Fadiman penning a positive review in the Book-of-the Month Club News (Fadiman, 1951).

In the first two weeks after its publication in 1951, The Catcher in the Rye rocketed to the top of the New York Times bestseller list (Time, 2008). Adam Golub writing in 2010 said, ‘In the years [following] World War II, an autonomous youth culture emerged with tastes in music, fashion, film and language that differed starkly from those of the older generation.’ Catcher , a critique on the superficiality of society with

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Although brief, Holden’s interactions with Sunny have a greater significance within the novel than anticipated as the impact she leaves on Holden is revealed to be unexpectedly powerful. Despite already expressing his distaste for the dishonest nature of most adults, for example ‘the big phony bastard’ Pencey alumnus Ossenburger, who is mentioned as having previously revisited Pencey Prep, it is Holden’s meeting with Sunny that is the very start not only of the downward spiral of his thoughts and wellbeing, both mentally and physically, but also of his very first experience of existing in, and grasping, the realms of adulthood. Sunny is one of the very first people that Holden interacts with upon his arrival and their interaction defines the rest of his short stay in the city. This association between Sunny’s interactions with Holden and his following deterioration suggests a more profound perspective on his development throughout the novel thus raising the question I am going to address in this essay. I think that this is worth exploring as in my research I found that most analyses and discourse on The Catcher in the Rye were centred on its representation as an authentic coming-of-age novel, and Salinger’s use of blunt, redundant language. To my knowledge, there has been less extensive discourse concerning the possibility of other characters bringing forth Holden’s development – in particular female characters. Throughout this essay, I will be primarily expressing opinions based on my close analysis of the text, whilst referring to secondary sources for contextual information and to engage in critical analysis.

Despite remaining on many “Top 100 Novels” lists, Catcher is also on its fair share of “Most Challenged Novels” lists. Due to Salinger’s frequent use of profanity and the abundance of sexual references, Catcher was the most censored book in American high schools throughout the ‘90s (Aldrich, 2021). Critics have called the reading of it as ‘almost literally a painful experience’ (Yardley, 2004), as well as describing Holden as ‘completely self-centred’, leaving the reader ‘[wearied] of Holden himself’ (Goodman, 1951). Other than Holden, one particularly interesting character in the novel is Sunny, a teenage prostitute. Holden’s first encounter with Sunny takes place as he returns to the Edmont Hotel from Ernie’s, a nightclub. As he enters the elevator to go to his room, Holden meets Sunny’s pimp, Maurice, and strikes a deal with him: ‘Five bucks a throw’ (p. 102). Sunny is then sent up to Holden’s room, and as she tries to carry out her job, Holden declines her attempts and tries to converse with her instead. Holden pays Sunny the five dollars and she leaves his room, only to return with Maurice later. Maurice accuses Holden of not having paid Sunny enough, saying that it had actually been ‘ten bucks a throw’ (p. 113), not five. Maurice then physically assaults Holden as Sunny takes five dollars from Holden’s wallet and the pair leave Holden bloodied in his room. Sunny acts as a parallel with other female characters such as Jane Gallagher, Holden’s childhood love, and Phoebe, his younger sister. Whereas Jane is Holden’s ideal relationship prospect, Holden having met her when they were both children and his nostalgic memories depicting her as pure, intelligent, and caring, Sunny represents a foreign, unintelligent girl with a dishonourable career. Whereas Phoebe is Holden’s poster child of innocence and purity, Sunny stands for everything gritty, distasteful, and depressing in adulthood. Holden wants to protect Phoebe from ever nearing Sunny’s fate. Hence it is via Sunny that we see a stark contrast to Holden’s ideal concept of what a young woman and her future should look like.

“ Despite remaining on many “Top 100

Novels” lists, Catcher is also on its fair share of “Most Challenged Novels” lists. ”

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Defining the “loss of innocence” “Innocence” is defined as ‘the quality of having no experience or knowledge of the more complex or unpleasant aspects of life’ (Collins Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2018). From Holden’s perspective in the context of The Catcher in the Rye , the complex or unpleasant aspects of life would refer to the integration into adult society from adolescence and experience or knowledge regarded as adult behaviour and norms. More particularly within Holden’s narrative, his loss of innocence is revealed via his interactions with Sunny as he gains experience and knowledge of three major aspects: sex, his own emotional tendencies, and navigating the superficiality of society. Prior to Holden’s interactions with Sunny, Salinger emphasises that Holden already has an idea of how and when sex should occur, although he is a virgin. Holden’s meeting with Sunny results in the disintegration of such beliefs, bringing about the loss of his sexual naivety. Before Sunny’s arrival, Holden adjusts his appearance in the mirror, although he admits that he ‘didn’t have to get all dolled up for a prostitute or anything’ (p. 102). Salinger’s use of the informal idiom ‘dolled up’ is one that usually evokes the image of a feminine figure intricately adjusting her appearance to look beautiful. This contrast between femininity and Holden’s brash boyishness, accentuates the fact that Holden is nervous and is already emotionally entangled in the looming prospect of sex, as he is meticulously preparing as one would for a sexual encounter with a lover. Salinger then reveals Holden’s intentions for arranging a prostitute, wanting to ‘get in some practice on [Sunny], in case [he] ever [gets] married or anything’. By repeating ‘or anything’ at the end of Holden’s thoughts as he awaits Sunny’s arrival, Salinger creates a flimsy veneer of casualness and ease in Holden’s voice as Holden tries to mask his nerves and sexual inexperience. Holden’s anxiety further indicates how significantly he values sex – he views sex as a product of marriage, associating sex with love and romance. This is seen as Sunny starts to undress, and he feels that she ‘did it so sudden and all’ (p. 106). This curt sentence, monosyllabic with the exception of the italicised adjective ‘ sudden ’, reflects how robotic and Holden and Sunny: Where does sex fit in the equation of love?

contrived the interaction feels to Holden. Holden is clearly shocked by the lack of tenderness – sex should be a product of love and trust; it should happen naturally after a build-up of emotions and communication. Salinger stresses this as Holden asks Sunny, ‘Don’t you feel like talking for a while?’ in a desperate attempt to stall the physicality of sex. His hesitance, indicated by the words ‘Don’t you’ when asking Sunny to converse with him, implies that he feels Sunny should also desire to fabricate some sense of emotional context to sex – he is in a state of denial, finding it difficult to believe that sex could be so devoid of sentiment. By merely presenting Holden with what he had paid for, Sunny dispels Holden’s whole basis and foundation for what he thought would constitute sex – a tender, natural chronology of events. Holden ‘knows from observing the behaviour of his peers more than anyone that he ought to be a sexual being’ (Helenius, 2014, p. 31), yet with this encounter, Sunny provides him with the grounds to question everything he thought he knew about having sex. Not only do Sunny’s interactions with Holden cause him to question his sexual knowledge and identity, she induces Holden to consider what sex truly means to him in conjunction with growing up, which is something he had not considered until meeting her. Previous to meeting Sunny, Holden nervously states that he ‘didn’t care too much’ and ‘sort of just wanted to get it over with’ (p. 104). The flippant and nonchalant attitude toward sex “ ...his loss of innocence is revealed via his interactions with Sunny as he gains experience and knowledge... ”

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which Salinger gives Holden is reminiscent of the attitude that Holden’s schoolmates at Pencey Prep would boast about; as recalled by him, they would simply ‘talk about girls and liquor and sex all day’ (p. 146). Holden seems to have absorbed this mode of thinking, although valuing sex on an emotional level – he seems to have adopted such mannerisms as a way to shield himself from questioning what sex truly means. By putting sex down at the forefront of Holden’s mind as simply something to get over and done with, Salinger evinces that Holden does not feel the need to question what sex truly means to him. Sunny causes him to realise that by having sex, he is crossing the threshold between adolescence and adulthood (Helenius, 2014), something against which he is so stubbornly fighting. This is reflected in the structural parallelism as he opens his door to let Sunny in: he ‘had [his] suitcase right in the way and [he] fell over it …. damn near [breaking his] knee’. Holden quite literally stumbles over and falls on that very threshold, both physically and figuratively. Sunny elicits this new struggle within Holden, challenging the reasons why he even considered having sex. Emotional fragility in society As well as bringing out Holden’s personal struggles with sex, Salinger reveals that Sunny’s interactions with Holden also cast light on his emotional fragility. Throughout the novel, Holden is constantly criticising society and the ‘phoniness’ of adulthood, yet he simultaneously tries to mirror his behaviour to that of adults, blocking off and lying about any emotions or tendencies which he deems as ‘weak’ and unsuited for adulthood. He must be given the contagious, almost universal disease of phony adultism, in order to ‘cure’ his mental health (Heiseman & Miller, Jr, 1963). Sunny poses a challenge to this habit of his, as we see Holden’s ‘tough’ emotional front gradually crumble. As soon as he first meets Sunny, Holden introduces himself as suave twenty-two-year-old ‘Jim Steele’ (p. 105). The irony of his choice of name is very apparent, as the strong, smooth impression the name ‘Steele’ (homophonic to steel) implies, is highly incongruent with what happens later as Holden opens the door to Sunny and Maurice (Sunny’s pimp) with

his voice ‘shaking like hell’ (p. 112) and then ultimately lies on the floor in tears after being punched by Maurice. Salinger highlights that Holden is trying to level himself on the same playing field as those of adults but is neither emotionally mature nor robust enough to do so. Whilst Sunny is taking money from his wallet, stating that ‘all [she’s] takin’ is the five [he] owes her and that ‘[she’s] no crook’ (p. 115), Salinger’s regular use of contractions in her speech bestows a sense of nonchalance and youthfulness to her already unintimidating nature, yet Holden starts crying in response, proclaiming that ‘he’d give anything if [he] hadn’t [cried], but [he] did’ (p. 115). The bare, mostly monosyllabic words he uses to admit to his tears at the very end of his sentence, indicate just how shameful and embarrassed he is of his own emotional fragility, especially at the hands of someone like Sunny – a young female prostitute. Sunny’s actions and words culminate in the disintegration of Holden’s ‘adult’ act, revealing the nuances and contradictions of Holden’s emotional state. its superficiality. After Sunny tells him that she is from Hollywood he states, ‘I don’t think I could ever do it with somebody that sits in a stupid movie all day long.’ Helenius (2014, p. 31) puts forward the idea that Holden declines to have sex with Sunny because he is ‘afraid of the consequences of it to the innocence of himself and [Sunny], and of what an indelible shove it would be over the threshold between adolescence and adulthood’. In his opinion ‘Holden’s motivation for remaining a virgin lies in his ferocious drive for preserving innocence on the one hand and his reluctance to transition to adulthood on the other.’ By describing Holden’s interactions with Sunny, Salinger suggests that by preserving his virginity, Holden thinks that he is therefore preventing the death of his innocence, and furthermore protecting the little innocence that Sunny has left. However, there may be other reasons why Holden avoids having sex with Sunny. Tolchin (2007) argues that Holden ‘concocts a lie about having had an operation to avoid sex with a prostitute so as to conceal a profound lack of interest in [Sunny’s] body’. I, however, think that Holden avoids having sex with Sunny not because he is uninterested in her body – he is depressed as she reminds him of everything he dislikes about adult society, in particular

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as he hangs up her dress, expressing Holden’s emotions as he does so: ‘It made me feel sort of sad when I hung it up… The salesman probably just thought she was a regular girl when she bought it. It made me feel sad as hell – I don’t know why exactly’ (p. 107). It is in this moment that Holden starts to experience an even deeper disappointment with society. Salinger juxtaposes the idea of Sunny being a ‘prostitute and all’ and a ‘regular girl’ in Holden’s thoughts – Holden realises that a girl his age is too young to be a prostitute and recognises her position in society. Although Sunny is the same age as him, she has had her innocence stripped from her time after time already. Salinger reveals that Holden is in so much disappointment and shock, he can only describe himself as feeling ‘sad’, which he repeats twice. The magnitude of gaining this insight firsthand is so large, it is beyond Holden to even process why he feels exactly the way he does. Holden is disappointed that society would allow a young girl However, Sunny also represents Holden’s failure to pass the emotional threshold into adulthood. As Holden waits for Sunny to arrive, he reminisces about all the previous times he has ventured close to engaging in sexual intercourse, lamenting that ‘when you’re getting pretty close to doing it with a girl – a girl that isn’t a prostitute or anything – she keeps telling you to stop’. He states that ‘the trouble with [him] is that [he] stops. Most guys don’t. [He] can’t help it’ (p. 103). Eller (2018) writes: ‘It is as though [Holden] believes that manhood depends on acts of courage to prove one’s dominance and sees it as a personal deficiency that he cannot push forward without women’s consent in such situations.’ Holden’s disappointment at himself is underlined, as he proceeds to elaborate for a total of 13 lines that he just keeps stopping whenever a girl asks him to (p. 103). Salinger suggests that Holden feels as though his failure to have sex with Sunny also represents his failure to become an adult. He thinks that particularly with Sunny’s occupation as a prostitute, she was his very first opportunity to lose his virginity without the possibility of being rejected, yet due to his holding onto his innocence and his emotional fragility and loneliness, he ultimately decides not to do so. Thus, Holden associates these traits as undesirable in becoming an adult and recognises himself to be emotionally not ready – all via his interactions with Sunny.

Holden’s interactions with Sunny furthermore reveal his innermost emotional tendencies, and Sunny allows him to question why he feels the way he does. Holden is so devastatingly lonely and depressed – Salinger first discloses the extent of his misery in his interactions with Sunny. When Sunny enters his hotel room, Holden is so lonely that he attempts to carry on conversing with her, even after realising that he does not have any intention to have sex with her. He notes that ‘she was a lousy conversationalist’ as he ‘sat down again and tried to keep the conversation going’. At the same time, he feels ‘more depressed than sexy’, which he repeats twice (pp. 106, 107). Salinger implies that Holden feels Sunny is not intelligent nor interesting enough to hold a compelling conversation with but as he is already feeling immensely depressed he chooses to persist with a conversation that he would otherwise find unnecessary and painful. This amplifies how lonely he is – he is forcing himself to have a conversation with a person who he finds unrefined and lousy – just so he will not be alone again. Sunny brings out this deeper loneliness in Holden that he has not experienced before, marking this interaction as a critical point in Holden’s emotional development toward adulthood.

On a journey: Holden’s downward descent into misanthropy Sunny’s interactions with Holden provide context and some initial explanation of Holden’s deep anger and disenchantment with society. Upon meeting Maurice in the elevator and hearing about the

opportunity to pay for a prostitute, Salinger shows Holden’s disrespect and condescending attitude towards older women in prostitution, as Holden tells Maurice that he doesn’t ‘want any old bag’ (p. 102). This is ironic as upon meeting Sunny, he feels that she is too young to be a prostitute. As Sunny arrives, Holden notes that she has a ‘tiny little wheeny-whiny voice’ (p. 105) directing the reader’s attention to how surprisingly young Sunny is, with the alliteration of ‘wheeny-whiny’ evoking and exaggerating an air of childishness. Salinger continues this as Holden takes notice of the way Sunny speaks, for example when she says, ‘Like fun you are,’ he thinks she ‘sounded like a real kid’ and proceeds to ask how old she is (pp. 105,106). Salinger also emphasises Holden’s shock at Sunny’s youthfulness

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stubborn, childlike manner, repeatedly saying ‘ No ’, telling Maurice to ‘leave [him] alone’ and to ‘get the hell out of [his] room’, then bursting into tears (pp. 113-115). Salinger’s repetition of the single word ‘ No ’ and his use of the lowly cuss word ‘hell’ make Holden’s response reminiscent of a child refusing to listen to reason. The struggle Holden faces as he tries to compose himself is indicative of how he had initially wanted to prepare himself for adulthood, yet now realises that he wants to preserve his innocence after feeling repulsed by Sunny’s mistreatment at the hands of society. Holden’s childish sense of righteousness is provoked by his feeling of injustice. By underlining Holden’s persistent protests against handing over his money, Salinger conveys how Holden refuses to conform to adulthood and society. Thus, it is through Sunny’s interactions with Holden that Salinger reveals the extent of his anger and disappointment toward society which contributes to defining how he thinks and behaves throughout the rest of the novel. Salinger subtly accentuates Sunny’s significance in the novel by placing an abundance of repetitive phrases, precisely chosen vocabulary, and irony within Holden’s narrative voice. Alongside his neatly composed metaphors and structural parallelism, Salinger heightens the significance of Sunny’s interactions with Holden throughout the novel, allowing their interactions to reveal Holden’s loss of innocence. “ It is her interactions with him that ultimately define his beliefs and attitudes towards society throughout the rest of the novel. ”

to consider prostitution in order to survive, and for failing to spot and support a young girl in need. Therefore, it is Holden’s interactions with Sunny that reveal why he begins to harbour this spark of deeper anger and disappointment toward society. Moreover, Sunny’s interactions with Holden provide him with his first ever experience of the gritty realities of society. Her interactions with Holden reveal the extent of his hurt and distrust toward society, as he realises that adulthood is more complicated than he had ever imagined. Salinger conveys this as Maurice and Sunny return to Holden’s hotel room. As Maurice demands Holden to give them another five dollars, Salinger portrays Maurice as representing the deceit and greed of society, describing him as having a ‘big fat hairy stomach’ (p. 113), reflecting the beliefs of the era that equated gluttony and greed with fatness. Maurice threatens Holden with physical consequences, yet Holden refuses persistently in a Conclusion In The Catcher in the Rye Sunny’s interactions with Holden have a greater significance within the novel than one would expect. Sunny’s interactions with Holden reveal his loss of innocence as he gains knowledge and experience of sex, his emotional tendencies, and the superficiality of society. Sunny dispels Holden’s previous misconceptions about sex and leads him to identify what sex truly means to him, her interactions with him influencing his eventual efforts to preserve his innocence via his virginity. Salinger also shows Holden’s emotional development during his interactions with Sunny, as she exposes his contradictory “adult” act of emotional toughness and his deeper sense of loneliness, leading him to realise that he is not emotionally “ready” to cross the threshold from adolescence to adulthood. Additionally, Sunny allows Holden to explore why he harbours such intense hatred and distrust for society, providing him with his first direct experience of the gritty realities of adulthood. It is her interactions with him that ultimately define his beliefs and attitudes towards society throughout the rest of the novel. If the scope of this essay were to be expanded, it could be further extrapolated that Sunny’s interactions with Holden reveal his loss of innocence via societal issues such as misogyny.

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Bibliography Aldrich, H. (2021, June 9). Four Reasons The Catcher in The Rye Was Banned. Bookstr. Retrieved November 4, 2022, from https://bookstr.com/article/four-reasons-the-catcher-in-the rye-was-banned/ Eller, E. (2018, December 3). Holden Caulfield’s #Metoo Narrative in The Catcher in the Rye | by Erica Eller | Medium . Erica Eller. Retrieved October 2, 2022, from https://ericaeller. medium.com/holden-caulfields-metoo-narrative-9e092c8cf146 Golub, A. (2010, January 30). American Adolescent . Forbes. Retrieved September 14, 2022, from https://www.forbes. com/2010/01/30/j-d-salinger-catcher-in-the-rye-pop-culture opinionscontributors-adam-golub.html?sh=108bf24b537d Goodman, A. L. (1951, July 16). Mad About Children . The New Republic. Retrieved September 14, 2022, from https://newrepublic.com/article/72838/mad-about-children Fadiman, C. (1951, July). Book-of-the-Month Club News . Salinger Page 657 Google Books result. https://books.google. co.uk/books?id=wpVqBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA657&lpg=PA657&dq= Book-of-the-Month+Club+News+(July+1951)+clifton&sou rce=bl&ots=cWQIhmkQ_U &sig=ACfU3U0qIO0IayrAQg_ Gq_3_MZP7ddyzmw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiyl qu6lZX6AhVim1wKHVZCBggQ6AF6BAgbEAM#v=onepage&q=B HarperCollins Publishers. (2018). Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner’s Dictionary . HarperCollins Publishers Limited. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/innocence Heiseman, A., & Miller, Jr., J. E. (1963). J. D. Salinger: Some Crazy Cliff . In If You Really Want to Know: A “Catcher” Casebook (Malcolm M. Marsden ed., p. 22). Chicago: Scott, Foresman. Helenius, E. (2014, May). Socialization, Sexuality, and Innocence in The Catcher in the Rye . University of Tampere, Department of Language, Translation and Literary Sciences: Master’s Thesis. https://trepo.tuni.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/95706/ GRADU-1402991724.pdf Salinger, J. D. (1951). The Catcher in the Rye . Little, Brown. Smith, H. (1951, July 14). Manhattan Ulysses, Junior . Saturday Review of Literature July 14 1951. http://www.ueji.ne.jp/jd/ reviews/srl1.html Time. (2008, September 26). ‘The Catcher in the Rye’ | Top 10 Censored Books | TIME.com . Entertainment. Retrieved September 14, 2022, from https://entertainment. time.com/2011/01/06/removing-the-n-word-from-huck-finn-top 10censored-books/slide/the-catcher-in-the-rye-2/ Tolchin, K. R. (2007). Optimism, Innocence, and Angst in ‘The Catcher in the Rye . In Part Blood, Part Ketchup: Coming of Age in American Literature and Film (pp. 33-45). Lanham: Lexington Books. Yardley, J. (2004, October 18). Holden Caulfield . The Washington Post. Retrieved September 14, 2022, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/jd-salingers-holden caulfield-aging-grace lessly/2013/08/27/04127c00-0f5b-11e3 85b6-d27422650fd5_story.html

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Evie McGill

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Smartness of the Seas:

An essay comparing and contrasting the intelligence of killer whales ( Orcanus orca ) and common bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) By Alex Niblett This essay will analyse the similarities and differences of intelligence between killer whales ( Orcanus orca ) and common bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ). Both these species have the characteristics of highly intelligent animals, noticeable by the ease at which they can learn simple tricks in captivity. However, this intelligence is much more complex than it seems and scientists have still to understand it fully.

Introduction

For this essay, Professor Thomas White’s definition of intelligence will be used for its succinctness and relevance to not just an organism’s specific features but also to its environmental pressures: ‘The challenges that need to be met simply to stay alive are significantly different on the land and in the water. We should think about intelligence as the intellectual and emotional abilities that make it possible for a species to survive in their environment and to solve the problems and overcome the challenges that life throws at them’ (OrcaNation, 2019). Another feature which helps to develop the comparison and to contrast intelligence is a phenomenon called swarm intelligence: ‘Sophisticated collective intelligence’ (Bonabeau, 1999). Swarm intelligence is the ‘problem-solving

Intelligence and how it presents in species other than humans has always been of interest to me. Wildlife documentaries often explore learning. For example, I have seen orangutans using saws after watching humans use them and these instances in programmes have influenced my essay choice. Marine animals interest me in particular. Killer whales and common bottlenose dolphins are both cetaceans, classified in the order Odontoceti and the same family, Delphinidae (Klinowska, 1991). Therefore, becomes more straightforward, yet not trouble-free because they are still vastly dissimilar, from their behaviour to their environment and this is why I chose to study them. they are both technically dolphins, so comparing them to each other

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This essay will be split into four sections that evaluate intelligence in the way Professor Thomas White describes it. In the first section, I will analyse the structure of the brain and how it links to contrasting functions of an organism; this will set the frame for the other sections. In the next three sections I will then go into detail about how these cetaceans thrive in their environments using skills like communication, language and learning. I will then look at teamwork in the form of hunting and problem solving, and finally at memory and culture in the concluding section. Each of these skills are the branches from the trunk of intelligence. Going into the detail of these skills will prove their significance to survival, therefore broadening intelligence. MASS LEADS TO GREATER INTELLIGENCE This is false. If this were true, we would have the same intellectual powers as a mouse (Lechtenberg, 2014). Instead, another measure of the brain is used, EQ or “encephalization quotient.” EQ is the real brain mass of a certain species in contrast to the predicted brain mass for that species (Koch, 2016). This scale puts: • Homo sapiens at 7.4 - 7.8 EQ, above every other species • Orcanus orca at 2.57 EQ • Tursiops truncatus at 4.14 EQ (Marino, 2004) This scale alone would put T. truncatus above O. orca, although we must consider the differences in the various parts of the brain configuration as they lead to distinct functions and abilities which show how these cetaceans have adapted best to their environments. As stated in the definition of intelligence by Professor Thomas White, an organism’s intelligence is their ability to overcome obstacles in their environments to remain and flourish in them. SINCE THIS THEORY IS NOT VALID THEN MAYBE THE RATIO OF BRAIN SIZE COMPARED TO BODY

strategies inspired by the collective behaviour of social insect colonies and other animal societies’ (Wu, 2016). The term expresses how animal societies function most efficiently when working together, which can be applied to dolphin pods. I also need the ability to measure intelligence and to have a sense of its scale. Being able to measure intelligence allows me to further compare and contrast these cetaceans. Intelligence of an organism is measured by the following: ‘their sense of self awareness, their capacity for problem solving, and even an anatomic measure of brain size and complexity’ (Mikell, 2022). How brain structure links to intelligence This section explores the different assumptions about the brain. Comparing and contrasting the brain structure and size between Orcanus orca and Tursiops truncatus , I look at the links between brain and intelligence. ANIMAL IQ? Scientists have been trying to find a way to measure intelligence in animals. Human intelligence can be measured by taking an IQ “intelligence quotient” test. IQ tests usually require the use of pen and paper or a computer so are not useful for assessing animals and there is also the difficulty of ‘how motivated they are to perform’ (Balter, 2015). Scientists have been looking for another way to calculate animal intelligence levels. Sperm whales have the largest brains in the animal kingdom (OrcaNation, 2019). So, if a larger brain did lead to greater intelligence then sperm whales would be ruling the world. Thanks to modern technology, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) an image of an organism’s internal anatomy can be made. 26 fit human participants took part in an MRI scan project to measure their brain structure and size. This investigation concluded that brain size had little relation to IQ, with the brain volume relating to 9 - 16% of general intelligence (Koch, 2016). This does not provide a definite answer to the theory that brain size is linked to intelligence; it is undetermined. DOES A LARGER BRAIN LEAD TO GREATER INTELLIGENCE?

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This indicates that O. orca can process information a fraction faster than T. truncatus. This suggests that sudden inputs can be dealt with faster and more efficiently in killer whales, so that they thrive in their environment that bit better, potentially adding to the aspect of intelligence. Another part of the cerebrum, found in the cerebral cortex is the insula (Dingman, 2022). The insula is in a hidden location in the lateral sulcus, a well known crevice in the brain. The insula is dedicated to functions and feelings such as emotion, perception, and pain (Dingman, 2022). The insula of O. orca has been declared the world’s most detailed, controlling the abnormally high emotional connections observed in the wild between killer whales and between them and different species (OrcaNation, 2019). A harrowing example of the emotional connections between killer whales is shown by their ‘human-like mourning’. A mother whale in the Pacific Northwest lost her calf after it unfortunately died 30 minutes after birth and she carried her dead infant over an estimated 1,000 miles for two weeks and three days (Main, 2018). The vast size of the insula of T. truncatus is only similar to the insula of primates (Jacobs, Galaburda, McFarland, & Morgane, 1984). They show some of the highest levels of intelligence in the animal kingdom. As described in this section, the EQ scale puts T. truncatus 161.09% above O. orca. This scale also puts humans at the top and scientists believe it is the most accurate scale to use showing how far the human species has come. However, O. orca have slightly more gyrified brains and therefore process information more rapidly, leading to better awareness of their surroundings. At this point, I must be open minded about intelligence, and how it relates to these species’ different behaviours. Diana Reiss (2012) stated ‘Brains can only tell us so much, and it really is their behaviour that gives us an indication of what these animals, what their intelligence is like.

BRAIN STRUCTURE AND ITS FUNCTIONS The brain consists of three main parts: cerebellum, brainstem, and cerebrum. These contribute to the autonomic functions of an organism as well as voluntary movements (Hopkins Medicine, 2022). An organism’s social interests link to the cerebellum, it controls their behaviour and it also causes the initiation of movement (Hopkins Medicine, 2022). This does not affect intelligence. The brainstem controls autonomic movements like blinking and certain reflexes such as swallowing and vomiting (Hopkins Medicine, 2022). These are background functions in many species; these factors do not affect intelligence levels, therefore will not be considered. The biggest part of the brain is the cerebrum. The cerebrum can be split into four main sections. The frontal lobe: involved with the senses, problem solving, and speech. The parietal lobe: connected with pain, language, and spatial understanding. The occipital lobe: associated with vision. Lastly the temporal lobe processes speech and memory (Hopkins Medicine, 2022). The cerebral cortex is the name given to the outermost part of the cerebrum. Containing gyri and sulci, ridges, and folds (Hopkins Medicine, 2022). Certain characteristics of a cetacean brain vary causing contrast in intelligence. Gyrification is the number of cortical wrinkles, allowing the nerve cells in the brain to be closer together therefore allowing greater speeds of neural transmission, as well as less energy used up in the process (OrcaNation, 2019). Greater gyrification provides increased amount of information processing, the optimal use, control, and speed at which the data is understood (OrcaNation, 2019). The Gyrification Index (GI) puts: • Orcanus orca at 5.70 (the most gyrified brain in the animal kingdom) • Tursiops truncatus at 5.62 (OrcaNation, 2019)

“ A harrowing example of the emotional connections between killer whales is shown by their ‘human-like mourning’. ”

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Communication, language, and learning All organisms that thrive best in groups or pods, like these cetaceans, do so by their intensely elevated levels of communication. This allows for complex hunting strategies and problem solving in their environments. This adds to the phenomenon of swarm intelligence, where the combined efforts of multiple organisms increases levels of success and therefore survival. This is where communication, language and learning apply to intelligence. It is worth bearing in mind that the greater number of research studies of the intellectual behaviour of cetaceans focus on T. truncatus rather than O. orca. This is due to the much higher population of common bottlenose dolphins, 600,000 compared to killer whales at around 50,000 (SeaWorld, 2022). The literature on T. truncatus will therefore provide additional evidence for cognitive behaviours and adaptations (Marino, 2004). HOW DO THESE CETACEANS COMMUNICATE? Cetaceans are known to communicate via body language as well as sounds, mostly in the form of whistles, clicks which are mostly used in echolocation while hunting, and also ‘burst pulses’ (Vallarta Adventure, 2021). These cetaceans have been known to adopt signature whistles shortly after birth (DolphinPlus, 2018). Each individual has a different whistle and these whistles allow the rest of the pod to locate them. If dolphins become disconnected from the pod, repetition of their individual whistles allows them to be reunited (Dolphin Research Center, 2022). Their signature whistles change with age. This can be seen when males alter their whistle when mating or ‘forming an alliance with another dolphin’ (DolphinPlus, 2018). An alternative theory to why dolphins copy and learn each other’s signature whistles, is that they are using it as a name (DolphinPlus, 2018). This allows for recognition as they use these signature whistles to introduce themselves, rather like human names. They are fundamentally talking to each other as a way of socialising in their pods. Scientists can record individual whistles and play them to other cetaceans using technology called Cetacean Hearing and Telemetry (Vallarta Adventure, 2021). Killer whales also have ‘dialects’ of their signature whistles which differ between pod families, this allows them to communicate miles apart (Frerck, 2022).

LEARNING Both these cetaceans show a strong ability to learn in captivity. Learning different tricks leads to rewards. They are also being studied learning different English words and mimicking them so there could potentially be conversations between orcas and humans in the future (Frerck, 2022). This form of vocal mimicry has been heard being practised by an orca called Wikie at the Marineland Aquarium in France. Research reveals that Wikie, and potentially other orcas, are able to imitate human speech, in some cases at the first attempt, saying words such as “one, two, three” “hello” and “bye, bye” (Frerck, 2022). They also mimic sounds similar to blowing a raspberry, all created via the blowhole. Dr Jose Ambramson has faith that there might be conversations between Wikie and humans in the future. However, he also says that there should be much more of a focus on their native talents and expertise rather than trying to humanise such species (Frerck, 2022). Orcas have been known to mimic the language of other species, such as the common bottlenose dolphin. This skill is taught to their infants at an early age. This was shown by a study at the SeaWorld Research Institute and the University of San Diego (Andrei, 2014). The mimicry could potentially be used to trick dolphins, in one way or another, providing an easier meal for the orcas. Their ability to learn other species’ vocalisations and languages shows their advanced levels of learning. Dr Diana Reiss (2012) presented a fascinating TEDx Talk. She described her encounters and experiences with common bottlenose dolphins both in the wild and in captivity. She filmed a dolphin creating her own toys for fun. The dolphin formed a glistening air ring, which she swam through near the surface. This is confirmation that a dolphin can innovate and has the understanding to make complex preparations. The dolphin would have to be deep enough to blow the ring upwards at the correct angle to make sure it did not break. A similar trick was self-taught by a dolphin called Ballie, who was only two years old. She blew a large amount of air out of her blowhole into the surrounding water of her pool, then slapped this air with her tail to form air rings which she would follow around her pool and continued this activity for hours on end (Reiss, 2012). These examples of T. truncatus, self-teaching skills for fun prove their learning capabilities. These skills have very little use in the wild, yet still provide evidence of learning and therefore reflect their intelligence.

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A female common bottlenose dolphin named Kelly, 44 years old, captive in Dolphin Cay in the Bahamas, shows the ease with which these cetaceans can learn. She was instructed to remove rubbish that unintentionally falls into her enclosure and give it to her trainers (Eveleth, 2018). She would be rewarded with fish. In time, she realised that the size of the rubbish did not affect the quantity or size of the fish reward. She then started to hoard the items she collected beneath a rock in her enclosure and hand the trainers the rubbish in smaller chunks. By returning more smaller bits of rubbish, she was echolocation. Echolocation serves two purposes: navigation and hunting prey (DolphinPlus, 2018). Without echolocation these species would not be able to hunt in such extraordinary ways as they do and would not be able to coordinate strategic attacks in pods. Echolocation is a major advantage for these organisms, acting as their sixth sense. This adaptation has been caused by the slight murkiness of seawater. Echolocation is ‘pneumatically driven’ (Illustra Media, 2016) by the compression of air. As air passes through the nasal passage it is compressed and then forced through the phonic lips, which vibrate. These vibrations create sound in the form of high and low frequency clicks (Illustra Media, 2016). The pressurised air collects in airsacs which, when full, push the air back down the nasal passage again. This reuse and re-compression of air allows for further Hunting and problem solving Both Orcanus orca and Tursiops truncatus use

rewarded with more fish (Eveleth, 2018). This skill of returning the rubbish was learnt, and then Kelly manipulated it to her benefit.

Both cetaceans communicate via the same mechanisms, via physical gestures and via

vocalisations. T. truncatus are known to have individual signature whistles compared to O. orca who share a dialect within a pod. O. orca have learnt to replicate the whistles of T. truncatus to lure them into a death trap, while T. truncatus have outsmarted their trainer in order to be rewarded with more food.

echolocation. The range of sounds generated by the phonic lips are absorbed and focused on the melon, an organ found in the forehead made of fatty tissues (DolphinPlus, 2018). The melon transmits these clicks into the surrounding water (see figure 1). These sonic waves bounce off specific targets and are received at the lower jaw at the acoustic window, passing through the innermost part of the ear where the signals travel along neurons to the brain where they are interpreted (DolphinPlus, 2018). Echolocation allows for a mental image of the object. Echolocation can be used to determine speed, density, internal anatomy, size, and location of prey (Illustra Media, 2016). This superpower can even allow these whales to detect the foetus inside a pregnant woman’s womb, in a way similar to ultrasound (Kankudti, 2013). This vivid example describes the remarkable level at which echolocation works, with the ability to see with sound.

monkey lips (phonic lips)

posteria bursa

Figure 1: A simplified diagram of the neuroanatomy, regarding components used for echolocation. (Whale and Dolphin Conservation, 2022).

blowhole

airsacs

anterior bursa

brain

melon

skull

maxilla

internal nares

mandible

auditory bulla (inner ear)

acoustic window (sound conducting tissue)

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“ ...they will zero in on one fish, and they will follow that single fish until they catch it. ”

HUNTING In this section I will analyse the differing hunting methods of both O. orca and T. truncatus . These hunting techniques are evidence of the intelligence acquired by these cetaceans. Each technique connects to the particular scenario at hand. When these cetaceans adapt to their environment, they can thrive to an exceptional extent. When both these odontocetes hunt a shoal of fish using echolocation, Dave Anderson, the captain of Dave’s Dolphin & Whale Watching Safari, explains ‘they will zero in on one fish, and they will follow that single fish until they catch it’ (Illustra Media, 2016). 1. Slap and stun: Killer whales use their tails to slap fish on the edge of a baitball, or shoal of fish, effectively paralysing them. When stunned the fish are left floating, as an easy pick for the killer whales, who therefore conserve energy as no chasing is involved. They seem to curl their tails inwards at either end, increasing the streamline speed of the strike. Sometimes the momentum of the slap causes them to spin 360° before they feast on their victims (Learning from Whales, 2016). 2. A life-threatening wave: Killer whales of the Antarctic have been filmed coordinating very sophisticated attacks. A pod of orcas spotted a lone crabeater seal on a small ice sheet. Four orcas from the pod lined up, side by side and swam in synchrony straight towards the ice sheet with the seal on top. Once they reached it, they quickly submerged creating a huge wave, pushing the seal into the sea on the other side where another orca was waiting for the kill (Lindblad Expeditions-National Geographic, 2018). HUNTING TECHNIQUES OF ORCANUS ORCA :

HUNTING TECHNIQUES OF TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS :

1. Mud cages: Pods of T. truncatus in the shallow estuary off the coast of Florida catch fish in the most bizarre, cooperative fashion. Once a school of fish has been located, one of the dolphins is assigned the job known as the chaser, circling their prey while slapping their tail flukes against the seabed. This disturbs the silt creating an artificial wall, or net. The other members of the pod scare the fish inwards, enclosing them in this circle. Out of distress the fish jump out the water over the mud cage to escape, however the rest of the pod are waiting for them. It is so effective that the fish jump straight into their mouths (BBC, 2015). 2. Stranded: A different population of common bottlenose dolphins hunt at low tide by the mudbanks of Orlando and South Carolina. Working together, they use the mudbanks to corner their prey. Forcing the fish and themselves onto the banks with a wave of water, both species become beached. The dolphins risk their lives to get these meals. They all beach with their right side facing on the mud, this stops the fish from retreating back into the water (BBC Earth, 2018). The sources I have used are dependable, as the footage is either from wildlife studies or broadcast television documentaries, showing real footage of these attacks in the wild. The hunting strategies differ between species due to their contrasting environments. Different populations adopt different techniques because of the particular habitats which they live in, which is proof of their intelligence.